Apollo 13 Forty year Anniversary
Astronauts Crew of Apollo 13 :Jim Lovell…Jack Swigert…Fred Haise
NASA’s Apollo 13 was slated to be the United States’ third lunar landing mission. It launched April 11, 1970, at 2:13 p.m. EST from Launch Pad 39A in Florida. From left to right are mission commander Jim Lovell, command module pilot John Swigert and lunar module pilot Fred W. Haise. The mission was aborted after the service module oxygen tank ruptured. Still, the mission was classified as a “successful failure” because of the experience gained in rescuing the crew. As the crew finished a 49-minute TV broadcast showing how comfortably they lived and worked in weightlessness on the evening of April 13, Lovell finished the interview stating, “This is the crew of Apollo 13 wishing everybody there a nice evening, and we’re just about ready to close out our inspection of Aquarius and get back for a pleasant evening in Odyssey. Good night.” Nine minutes later, oxygen tank No. 2 blew up, causing the No. 1 tank to also fail. The command module’s normal supply of electricity, light and water was lost. The crew was about 200,000 miles from Earth. After an intensive investigation, the Apollo 13 Accident Review Board identified the cause of the explosion. In 1965, the command mudule had undergone many improvements that included raising the permissible voltage to the heaters in the oxygen tanks from 28 to 65 volts DC. Unfortunately, the thermostatic switches on these heaters weren’t modified to suit the change. During one final test on the launch pad, the heaters were on for a long period of time. This subjected the wiring in the vicinity of the heaters to very high temperatures (1,000 degrees F), which were subsequently shown to have severely degraded the Teflon insulation. The thermostatic switches started to open while powered by 65 volts DC and were probably welded shut. Furthermore, other warning signs during testing went unheeded and the tank, damaged from eight hours of overheating, was a potential bomb the next time it was filled with oxygen. That bomb exploded on April 13, 1970 — 200,000 miles from Earth. The Apollo 13 crew safely landed in the Pacific on April 17, 1970. Image Credit: NASA© article © NASA
An excellent article on Michael Collins By Robin Mckie
It was the secret terror that gripped astronaut Michael Collins throughout the Apollo 11 project 40 years ago. As his spacecraft, Columbia, swept over the lunar surface, Collins - the mission’s third and largely forgotten crewman - waited for a call from fellow astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to say their lander craft had successfully blasted off from the Moon
The message would banish Collins’s deepest fear: that he would be the only survivor of an Apollo 11 disaster and that he was destined to return on his own to the United States as “a marked man”.The realisation that the normally icy-cool astronaut was so obsessed by such an outcome puts a fresh perspective on the celebrations that will, this weekend, absorb the United States as it commemorates the moment, on 21 July 1969, that an American first walked on another world. Apollo 11 will be presented as a flawless technological triumph at jamborees across the nation, including a special reception at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, which all three Apollo 11 astronauts are scheduled to attend.
Yet at the time, worries that the mission would end in disaster consumed nearly all of those involved in the programme - despite their apparent calm. And no one was more stressed than Collins, it appears.
In his case, the astronaut was obsessed with the reliability of the ascent engine of Armstrong and Aldrin’s lander, Eagle. It had never been fired on the Moon’s surface before and many astronauts had serious doubts about its reliability. Should the engine fail to ignite, Armstrong and Aldrin would be stranded on the Moon - where they would die when their oxygen ran out. Or if it failed to burn for at least seven minutes, then the two astronauts would either crash back on to the Moon or be stranded in low orbit around it, beyond the reach of Collins in his mothership, Columbia.
All three astronauts believed there was a real chance such a disaster would occur. Armstrong thought his prospects were only 50-50 of making it back to Earth. And so did Collins, the pilot of Columbia and one of the world’s most experienced aviators.
Nor were the astronauts alone. Richard Nixon, then US president, had even prepared a speech that he would deliver in the event of the Eagle’s engine failing. “Fate has ordained that the men who went to the Moon to explore in peace will stay on the Moon to rest in peace,” it ran. “These brave men, Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, know that there is no hope for their recovery. But they also know that there is hope for mankind in their sacrifice.”
Thus Collins - alone in Columbia as the world focused on Armstrong and Aldrin walking on the lunar surface - fretted about his two companions below him on the Moon and revealed, in a note written at the time, that he was now “sweating like a nervous bride” as he waited to hear from the Eagle.
“My secret terror for the last six months has been leaving them on the Moon and returning to Earth alone; now I am within minutes of finding out the truth of the matter,” he wrote. “If they fail to rise from the surface, or crash back into it, I am not going to commit suicide; I am coming home, forthwith, but I will be a marked man for life and I know it.”
Then Armstrong and Aldrin prepared their lander for its launch. Armstrong pressed the engine’s firing button and Eagle soared perfectly above the lunar surface towards the waiting Collins. His worst fear had not materialised and he returned safely to Earth in the company of Armstrong and Aldrin, unmarked by the experience. He would not suffer a fate of global notoriety.
In fact, the opposite happened. Collins was forgotten. Today most people still know the names of the two first men on the Moon and recall the words, delivered by Armstrong, about taking a giant leap for mankind. But the name Michael Collins is rarely recalled, despite his critical role in the historic flight of Apollo 11. Not that he holds grudges. “It was an honour,” he said last week.
In fact, he was - in many ways - the unsung hero of the Apollo 11 mission, a point that was underlined at the time by the great American aviator Charles Lindbergh. He wrote to Collins, not long after his safe return, to tell him that his part of the mission was one of “greater profundity … you have experienced an aloneness unknown to man before”.
It is an intriguing remark and an apposite one, it turns out - a point that can be appreciated by looking at the very set-up of the mission. Apollo 11 consisted of a spindly lunar lander, Eagle, and an orbiting mothership, Columbia, that were both blasted into space on a giant Saturn V rocket on 16 July 1969. For three days, Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins cruised towards the Moon inside Columbia and spent their time gazing “out the window at the Earth getting smaller and smaller and checking the spacecraft”, according to Aldrin.
Then, on 20 July, Armstrong and Aldrin crawled into Eagle and flew it down to the Moon’s surface. “Keep talking to me, guys,” radioed an initially panicky Collins as the pair drifted away from his ship.
Minutes later, Columbia swept behind the Moon and Collins became Earth’s most distant solo traveller, separated from the rest of humanity by 250,000 miles of space and by the bulk of the Moon, which blocked all radio transmissions to and from mission control. He was out of sight and out of contact with his home planet.
“I am now truly alone and absolutely alone from any known life. I am it,” he wrote in his capsule. Lindbergh’s remarks were certainly accurate.
Such solitude would have unnerved most people. But not Collins. He says the emotion that he experienced most during his day alone in lunar orbit was that of exultation. And certainly he appears to have relished his time as the loneliest member of his species. He also emerged from the post-Apollo years relatively unscathed. Aldrin lapsed into alcoholism and depression, while Armstrong became a virtual recluse. Both men subsequently divorced. By contrast, Collins - shaded from the glare of publicity - has avoided such personal traumas and is still with his wife, Patricia, whom he married in 1958. The couple have three grown-up children.
Collins was born in Rome on 31 October 1930. His father, Major-General James Lawton Collins, was then serving overseas with the US army. Collins later graduated from West Point and joined the US air force. An early assignment was to the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing at George Air Force Base, where he learned how to drop nuclear weapons. He joined the astronaut corps in 1962 and flew on one of America’s two-man Gemini capsules with veteran astronaut John Young, who flew on a later Apollo mission. Then came his selection for Apollo 11.
After his return to Earth, Collins gave up space travel and pursued a career in bureaucracy and business. He was director of the National Air and Space Museum until 1978, before being appointed vice-president of LTV Aerospace in Arlington, Virginia. He resigned in 1985 to start his own business.
Today he remains cheerful about his role on Apollo 11, although he describes himself as becoming increasingly grumpy. “At age 78, some things about current society irritate me, such as the adulation of celebrities and inflation of heroism,” he said last week. Neither description fits him, he added. “Heroes abound, but don’t count astronauts among them. We worked very hard, we did our jobs to near perfection, but that is what we had been hired to do.”
He describes himself today as moderately busy, “running, biking, swimming, fishing, painting, cooking, reading, worrying about the stock market and searching for a really good bottle of cabernet for under $10″.
As to his claim to fame, that was simple fate, he added. “Neil Armstrong was born in 1930. Buzz Aldrin was born in 1930, and Mike Collins, 1930. We came along at exactly the right time. We survived hazardous careers and were successful in them.
“But in my own case at least, it was 10% shrewd planning and 90% blind luck. Put Lucky on my tombstone.”
Originally published by Robin McKie (The Guardian July 2009)
I have always held the view that Michael Collins was underestimated in his magnificent role as the man alone in space who was ultimately responsible for getting the crew of Apollo 11 home from their jubilant first walk on another planet. Few people could have been chosen for this uncharted and unique historical job. Not only was he the closest man never to walk on the Moon, but had also the unenviable task of ensuring utter disaster was not bestowed on Aldrin and Armstrong. Out of my entire Astronaut Autograph collection his was perhaps the most satisfying to purchase, and unusually not one of the most expensive, as without his contribution in history it could have been an entirely different picture to the one we already know. Gary Cole
Why would we go to the Moon again ?
I found it interesting to read the recent comments of an American presidential candidate talking on his views to re-visiting the Moon. For someone who may be confident about his chances of becoming the next President has he forgotten the World (in particular America) is still in deep recession. And whilst I myself am a space travel enthusiast I do recall that America has already stepped up to that challenge, been there ! and brought back some space rock samples already on six separate occasions. Not only that Space Shuttle has come to an end, job losses have been made at NASA and Astronauts are looking to use their skills elsewhere ! Or have I missed something ?
Whilst we have the technology to get there faster and safer than before, it is 40 years since man traveled into deep space opting for more regular excursions via Space Shuttle. Any project to revisit the Lunar surface does not have to involve America unless it is for a particular purpose and justification of budget. Other countries such as China who have hinted this may be a possibility for them would of course create another huge public interest in space exploration. I for one would love to see more deep space travel to further planets, but not to the Moon as a first choice. The Moon would have to serve a purpose for long term trips with a permanent base for study purposes. Think about the cost of getting Apollo 11 to the moon? It took three space programs of research , Mercury, Gemini and Apollo which gave Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin only 2 hours 31 minutes on the lunar surface traversing the surface by 250 metres collecting 21.7 kilograms of rock.
Any Moon project that is worthy of attempting will have to in my opinion look at the benefits of what the Moon can offer, and I believe that will only come from a more permanent study base which will reduce the cost of repeat visits. Only 18 Astronauts have ever been involved in successful missions to the Moon, but it has taken thousands of people to get them there.Finally, it is healthy to have visions of reaching what seems the unreachable, but maybe the bottom line is to be thankful that these visions have already been achieved.. Gary Royston Cole (March 2012)
Stargazing, Space Travel and Vision
BEHOLD A BEAUTIFUL UNIVERSE IN ALL ITS ETERNAL GLORY 
As a small child like many children I would now and again on a star lit night stand day dreaming focused on my own personal star with my hands outstretched trying to grab it. I remember vividly the year of 1969 when in one single minute taking ten years of preparation Neil Armstrong gave hope to many young men and women who dreamed of becoming space explorers.It is always good to dream rather than fantasize! Dreams can become visions , visions with perseverance can becomes realities, but fantasies often remain just that because they lack substance.
If you are thinking. “Well I cant be the first in space, I will never be the first to orbit the earth or walk on the moon, or even break an air speed record” Stop right there because your destiny is your destiny, you own it and determine it and no one else can, thank goodness ! Whilst some men were breaking air speed records others had their sight on the moon, and whilst Cene Cernan was walking on the Lunar surface for the last time other men were preparing the dreams of many to fly in the Space Shuttle. The point I am making is never underestimate the potential of mankind we are crafted from the greatest creator God! And He (depending on your beliefs) wants the very best for us. Technology has advanced tremendously since Armstrong’s footprint on the Moon and the Moon is only one planet in a vast solar system to reach. I am not suggesting we visit say Mars just because we can, or Saturn just because its rings look fascinating, but with any great adventure there needs to be a purpose, and a justification.This is why I herald the return of scientists viewing the stars and planets with their visionary telescopes and claiming new ground for explorers. I do not want to see great aviation feats like The Concorde ceasing flying with no replacement and progress standing still, or Space Shuttle conducting thousands of experiments for the furtherance of planet earth only to be grounded permanently. We need to remain focused on new projects, bolder missions, greater more efficient technology and that “Right Stuff” mentality from would be Astronauts. Just think when Ocean explorers set out discovering the shorelines of new Continents using basic instruments and stars to navigate their course they surely dreamed those same stars would one day be reached…. Gary Royston Cole (for www.spacebase.org.uk )
50 Years of manned spaceflight
The year 1961 recognises mankinds first achievement of successfully sending a man into space. Cosmonaut services pilot Yuri Gagarin the favoured candidate out of a possible 20 stepped on board his Russian Vostok 3KA rocket that would see him become the first man in space. The Americans decision to test trial an earlier space flight using a monkey enabled Russia to take the lead over them.
Gagarin was a supremely focused athletic individual who was prepared to risk his life for his country. The odds were almost certainly not to favourable for him. He recorded these words in his post flight report ” The feeling of weightlessness was unfamiliar compared with Earth. Here you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended”
We know that his spaceflight consisted of a single orbit of the Earth with official records telling us the spaceflight took 108 minutes from launch to landing. It was part of the mission that Gagarin would land separately from his spacecraft by ejecting with a parachute 7 km (23,000 ft) above ground. Gagarin was in the spacecraft for 108 minutes after launch, and that he didn’t touch ground for another 10 minutes. These statistics are essential in proving that Gagarin completed a full 360-degree orbit in inertial space. The longitude of launch to landing spanned a little more than 340 degrees, but the Earth also was rotating underneath him at about 15 degrees per hour while Gagarin was aloft. This historic flight catapulted him to fame and National hero status, immortalised after tragically being killed flying a Russian MIG fighter aircraft in 1968.
A FAREWELL TO SPACE SHUTTLE
STS 135 CREW
On a clear July day thousands gather to witness the final launch of NASA’s only manned spacecraft known to us as The Space Shuttle. As countdown concluded the sky was lit with blistering flames coming from the launch rocket thrusters that would propel it into orbit. As it disengaged itself from the launch pad memories of those early space exploration missions from Mercury to Apollo would know doubt be in the hearts of the Astronauts as they set the sights for the International Space Station.
As the Shuttle reached remarkable heights in a matter of seconds separating the clouds and showing off a white trail behind itself, nothing else in aviation today quite compares with this technological achievement. Though not a deep space spacecraft its resilience shone through for 30 years, and it is poignant to remember the astronauts who lost their lives in the two disasters which NASA suffered. Aviation has now lost in the last 10 years two significant aircraft in Concorde and Space Shuttle with no replacements. Both America and Russia since the late 1950’s have paved the way in space exploration leaving perhaps another Nation to take up the mantel? Both nations have successfully seduced their countries into supporting their audaciously expensive long term space programs. Competition between the two superpowers saw Russian military pilot Yuri Gagarin become the first man in space, and Naval pilot Neil Armstrong become the first human to walk on the surface of the Moon. As for the future I doubt if there will be any future space programs which will achieve , or touch the hearts like these two. It is not just proving that these goals can be achieved it is encouraging mankind that dreams can be fulfiilled no matter how far fetched they may appear when the vision is given. Technology will always advance beyond our imagination inspiring those who are gifted to work at their visions and hold them firmly in their hearts without fear of rejection. I will always applaud the risk takers,those who pledged the money, those who sacrificed the time for the invention of new technology, those who risked their lives as pilots and crew to achieve successful missions into new unexplored territories. The future is unknown, but as for the past it is the end of a 50 year love story that captured the world in ways that will not be experienced again…..Gary Cole‘Space Shuttle’ Ends after 30 years of service
STS 1 Crew (1980) STS 133 (2011) Crew
Good to welcome you all back to my historical website. Firstly I would like to thank all past, present and future visitors for your keen interest and hopefully patience in reading some of my articles. It will always in my opinion be a touch of historical sadness when any successful technology ceases not to be replaced and streamlined through with even more challenging technology as we see the Space Shuttle certainly earnt its’ reputation for! As STS 133 prepares its launch at end of January 2011 for the International Space Station(ISS) visit, it looks like America’s Shuttle will lose its status of the world’s most successful and practical deep space aircraft. For it has been decided by the top brass in view of the work still continuing on board the ISS there will be neccessary flights of a further two last shuttles scheduled as STS 134, and STS 135 (Atlantis) being the very last Shuttle numbered flight. mission. On a pre planned day on July 8th 2011 will no doubt be seen as a very special and significant date time in space history. We see this cessation of technology occassionally happening in aviation, with the most famous embarressment ‘ The Concorde’ being scrapped without a worthy replacement. Or to put it another way a failure to upgrade on what was a dateless, technically genious aviational masterpiece.The Concorde an Anglo British success began its early designs way back in the 60’s when Great Britain was coming out from its swinging 60’s Beatles pop arena into an era of more darker heavy rock music leading the way. Thus the Concorde itself was an innovator proving most definately that people would pay a good price for maybe not the most comfortable ride in the world, but ceratainly the fastest. I compare it to the Space Shuttle as they seemed to have similar goals, of excellence in engineering, severe testing before trusting regular flights and the ability to get you somewhere either inside , or outside the Earths atmosphere quickly whilst bringing you back home safe!
Space Shuttle did exactly what it set out to do. It shuttles highly trained experienced pilots , navigators and non flying technical personnel into space and back. Rewinding back to the late 60’s and early 70’s NASA were using the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs to justify a more competitive priced semi commercial project that involved more low profile individuals, ie highly trained mission specialists. Early space astronauts rightly earned their celebrity status, for their incredible bravado, excellent previous military record , and their ability to work and respect those who made it happen on the ground. It was this relationship (with the exception of two tragic Shuttle disasters) that gave in my opinion the Space shuttle an extremely long record of achievement. From 1980 after the 1st test flight with of STS 1 with Apollo Astronauts John Young, and new Rookie Bob Crippen we see experience giving new blood great encouragement. Only but a very few number of Apollo and Pre Apollo Astronauts were chosen, or applied for the Shuttle crew jobs. Harrison Schmitt the first non military aviator, and first ever mission specialist was chosen to go up on the last Apollo mission (17) for a purpose. He may of been possibly unpopular with the ‘in crowd of NASA Astronauts’ at the time when chosen (around 1970) but NASA in my opinion were thinking much much further into the future by connecting and enabling everyday people to get involved in Space Travel.
As I have said before in my blogs, Space travel was never just to prove man can reach the Moon, and come safely back again, but to provide thousands of non astronauts the opportunity to pull together and build something actually very special, uniquely memorable, and marketed to captivate a world wide audience! If Microsofts Bill Gates or Richard Branson for example were invited back in the 60’s to back up the ‘Mission Moon project’ financially, I would guess they probably would have. If you review but just a few of my mini biographies on both Space Shuttle and pre Space Shuttle Astronauts on this website you can enjoy to imagine the long hard road all them took to achieve their status. Highly driven, skilled craftsman, excellent in discipline with keen ears to listen and work well in a team are all ingredients for a successful project. No successful space craft has ever left the ground without the origins of inventors’ , innovators, politicians, technicians, engineers a variety of ground crew, and of course trained pilots, navigators and Commanders that overseer their precious crews. Whether there be a political Government world-wide who is prepared to continue with that ethic, let alone finance it remains to be seen…Gary Royston Cole
Apollo, A legacy not to be forgotten..
July 20th 1969 the worlds eyes are focused on 10 years of NASA’s preparation from Apollo1 to Apollo 10. Buzz aldrin converses probably the most famous conversation with his Commander Neil Armstrong:
Aldrin…”35 degree, 35 degrees/750 feet.Coming down at 23
Armstrong..“Okay”
Aldrin..“700 feet.21 down, 33 degrees
Armstrong..“Pretty rocky area”
Aldrin.. “600 feet , down at 19″
Aldrin.. “540 feet. down at …30.down at 15″ Okay you’re pegged on horizontal velocity”
Armstrong…“270 (feet) .Okay, hows the fuel?
Aldrin..“Take it down”
Armstrong..“Okay, Here’s a…looks like a good area here”
Aldrin..“I got the shadow out there”
Armstrong..“I got a good spot”
Aldrin..“100 feet.Three and a half down,nine forward. Five per cent.Quantity light”
Aldrin..“Okay. 75 feet.And its looking good.Down a half, six forward”
Capcom: “60 seconds”
Aldrin..40 feet, down two and a half. Picking up some dust”
CapCom..“30 seconds”
Aldrin..“Drifting forward just a little bit; thats good”
Aldrin..“Contact light”
Armstrong..“Shutdown”
Aldrin..“Okay engine stop”
CapCom.. “We copy you down , Eagle”
Armstrong..“Engine arm is off. Houston.Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed”
A brief conversation lasting several minutes reminds us of the importance of all those inspired declarations that were made by those involved with The Lunar project. We must remember that ” Imagination is nutritious food to every visionaries appetite”. Armstrong , Aldrin and Collins each had to have a strong appetite for imagination, for what they dreamt whilst growing up would surely hold them firm over several decades that would follow. There is in my opinion nothing better than a focused imagination, a hunger for hard work, a powerful ear to listen, and a brave instinct to make decisions at the most vital of times.
Faith in other people is a wonderful gift, that enables ground breaking events to take place. When it all comes together successfully, it is surprisingly so, not the time then to take a breather and relax. Over 10 years of success, failure, hard toil, sacrifice and even fear had been with Armstrong Aldrin and Collins during the Apollo Lunar build-up. Walking on the Lunar surface is more than just a statement of “We made it to the Moon”, it should inspire each of us all to believe that the things we dream about can actually happen. Neil Armstrong when he began walking down the ladder of the Lunar Module to take those famous first steps speaks these words to Cap Com. “I’m at the foot of the ladder. The LM fooftpads are only depressed in the surface about one or two inches although the surface appears to be very, very fine grained as you get close to it. Its almost like a powder. The ground mass is very fine. I’m going to step of the LM now”.
After training as a Navy pilot, working as a test pilot, being hand picked for the prestigious X15 project, and finally getting handpicked for NASA, his words are really very down to Earth. They show I think a touch of trepidation, a healthy fear of the unknown, and a man who must be in total “awe” of the whole situation. Now he would have to get himself ready for those first Lunar surface words, ” That’s one small step for man;one giant leap for mankind”. Having got to his “Great gig in the sky” he goes on to say: “The surface is fine and powdery, I can kick it up loosely with my toe. It does adhere in fine layers, like powdered charcoal, to the sole and sides of my boot. I only go in a small fraction of an inch, maybe an eighth of an inch, but I can see the footprints of my boots and the treads in the fine sandy particles” .
So we see that his footprint stamped on the Moon for all eternity signifies almost a statement of man’s permanentcy on that desolute lonely planet. It was indeed a giant step for mankind for back and forth we would go for another five missions stamping our claim on a planet that cannot give us anything back in return, except for the knowledge that we gained in getting there. So Mr Armstrong, Mr Aldrin and Mr Collins I salute you for reminding us that its part of our human make-up to dream, to have visions and goals that though sometimes they may seem way out of this planet, they are actually very close to the hearts of all mankind.
(c) gary royston cole
What will be the future for Space Exploration?
JUST WHERE WILL WE BE BOLDLY GOING INTO SPACE?
After researching over 200 space exploration missions from Project Mercury to the current Space Shuttle discovery missions I still cannot see clearly the way forward after Space Shuttle ceases this year. It has been an absolute thrill to trace step by step the human fascination with the progressive and aggressive determination to keep this habit going!
Atlantis first launched 25 years ago in 1985 by NASA was scheduled for its final launch on April 21st 2010 .This launch was one of only three remaining missions left in NASA’s Shuttle program. No further programs after Shuttle are expected until 2014, and even this date is doubtful. With a World in freeful financial meltdown recession, it is not unsurprisingly crystal clear whether it will be ‘New Frontiers ‘ or ‘Final Frontiers’. One thing seems certain though ! whatever it is , it will have to have massive justification for such a pheunomenal budget.
(continued after picture below)
There has in my opinion to be a clearly defined purpose with everything NASA has put forward to justify the common interest we have with space exploration, if it does not enhance and advance innovative knowledge then I guess we would have questioned it decades ago. Instead for those who have embraced this great adventure we have in a way become part of its long process.It was Neil Armstrong who said “ Mystery creates wonder and wonder is the basis of man’s desire to understand.”and: “Science has not yet mastered prophecy. We predict too much for the next year and yet far too little for the next 10.”
With every beginning there has to first be a believable vision: For the Russian Cosmonaut program its mission was to succeed at any cost to be the first Nation to place a man in space. When Yuri Gagarin was chosen, he chose to believe it would happen, the possibilities of failure no doubt was not an option for him. Unique bravado was required for any man to suit up, strap himself in, and fly solo on a Vostok rocket that had already seen tragedy in testing.
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin born march 9 1934 – 27 March 1968) became a hero of the Soviet Union as on 12 April 1961, he became the first human to fly outside the higher heavens of planet Earths’ atmosphere, and the first to orbit the Earth. Just over 8 years later the world is spellbound with the first Lunar landing, so much so NASA returned there 5 more times. Space shuttle during that time was already being conceived in the big womb of Americas vast space technology industry. They knew then the only way forward, with the least expense was to design a re-usable space craft, tough enough to go up again months later. Cleverly this idea would embrace other Nations as well as unite joint missions with Russia, China , Canada, the UK and others.
So far we have seen since 1981 three decades of perpetual astronaut travel the introduction of mission specialists who have performed hundreds of experiments for many different countries. Yes perhaps even Kennedy would not have believed that? So what now? Will another Nation return to the Moon, and if so for what purpose ? Will space stations be developed further, and increased outside of ISS (Internation Space Station)? Do we really believe strongly that commercial space travel will be affordable beyond the super rich with pilots such as Brian Binnie (Space Ship 1) leading the way. Believe you me I love the whole Space Exploration mandate, but have to admit that at the moment I am really not sure I would trust anyone other than a bone fide Nasa trained Astronaut to ‘Fly me around the Moon and back’. Who for example is going to give this the green light, whose decision will it be to take that risk, imagine all the health and safety issues (I can see that being a 10,000 page document just for starters! )
I really do not believe it is just me being cynical because in stark relaity space exploration is more than just a swift couple of Orbits around old faithful planet Earth, this is serious stuff, and we must always remember that. Nasa administrator Michael Griffin has said previously “I’m concerned about our ability to bring these new capabilities online by 2014. “If we do not quickly come to grips with this issue, we may have a prolonged gap between the end of the shuttle programme and the beginning of operational capability in our new systems, like that which occurred between 1975 and 1981, when we transitioned from Apollo to space shuttle.” He rightly also pointed out at the time that the gap led to the loss of engineering know-how within NASA.
To complete the International Space Station (ISS) by 2010 was a goal for the Bush government. Although its primary role is for research, we know that the ISS can also serve as intermediary between here and the moon. This was the Space Shuttle’s main purpose to help finish the assembly of the international Space Station. Shuttle’s retirement would see a new spacecraft developed that has to be capable of ferrying passengers and cargo to the ISS, and beyond our orbit to other worlds. A huge goal eh, sounds like competing with Captain James T Kirks job (though at least he had the Starship Enterprise and the equipment to achieve that).
This new proposed spacecraft will possibly be named: Crew Exploration Vehicle, with the project name’ Project Constellation’ Reaearching this we know that to date, every space vehicle placed into orbit has been propelled solely by rocket engines with both rocket and air breathing propulsion systems producing thrust by combusting various fuels with an oxidizer. Technology boffins tell us that an air-breathing engine will not function out in space, but it can get a vehicle into space while realizing significant reductions in take-off weight. This means that the current vision for the next SLV is to have multiple stages, one of which would incorporate an air breathing propulsion system that would operate before the vehicle leaves the Earth’s atmosphere. We know that all, the solid rocket boosters of the Space Shuttle separate while still in the atmosphere, which simply tells us that the whole first stage of the Shuttle could be replaced by an air-breathing engine. Brian Binnie and his record breaking Spaceship One operates just like this whilst riding piggyback on ‘The White Knight’ which is two J85GE-5s) powered aircraft right up until it reaches an altitude of 50,000 feet. What happens next is the spacecraft separates from its carrier and the rocket-powered stage of the ascent begins to the amazing achievement of outer space.
2014 is only 4 years away, and between now and then any sustainable project will have to go at some pace before regular space travel begins again, for NASA anyway! One must also not discount entirely other countries who see space exploration as their goal, China is looking at the Moon, it has already had Chinese Astronauts working on various Shuttle missions, and has the funds to pursue very seriously missions to more deeper space. Whatever happens we can expect a very international competitive spirit, of which working together can only ensure that quality , safety and genius remains, as it did on those early Mercury days…. Gary Royston Cole (16th May 2010)
If all else fails its Buzz Lightyear to the rescue!, “To infinity and beyond”
MERCURY THE JOURNEY BEGINS
GLENN CARPENTER GRISSOM SCHIRRA SHEPHERD COOPER SLAYTON
Project mercury propels forward the serious mission for regular and effcient space flights that would have manned crew leading space travel that would ultimately land a man on the moon. Mercury should be hailed as a heroic period in space history where men put their lives into the hands of a vast technical crew made up from the best in the world. It states simply that through diligence , percerverence and an element of bravado goals can be achieved. The years 1959-1963 would shape the future of manned space flight.
We shall see that these historical flights enthralled the world that this was not just a dream but a reality that was happening in their lifetime. The early sixties hailed great change for the Americans, a new enthusiastic President with Kennedy at the helm predicting a man on the moon by the end of the decade, the Russian space program had begun wth success with Satellites and Yuri Gagarin being propelled into the heavans via a Vostok rocket. Yes! this really was the decade of politicians sanctioning huge amounts of monies to a project that was truly untested, training highly rated pilots to become skilled Astronauts to a level never achieved before, and competing against Russia. But was this an arrogant space race at no cost? No, I do not think so! This was America pushing forward technology, getting a Nation enthused, after dark times with Korea, and later Vietnam. This was America displaying its power to the world through a decade of programs that would push forward the advancement of technology we take for granted today. They used to their advantage chosen Astronauts known as the ‘Mercury Seven’ in a massive publicity campaign that would warm the hearts of most Americans, whilst captivating the imaginations of people around the globe.
Without Mercury, without dedicated scientists and ground crew, without highly skilled Astronauts, without taxpayers money for this project there would never have been a Lunar Landing in 1969 !
Early Flight Tests
There were many test flights to test the Mercury project before it was manned, these were:
Little Joe 1 Big Joe 1 Little Joe 6 Little Joe 1A Little Joe 2 Little Joe 1B Beach Abort Mercury-Atlas 1 Little Joe 5 Mercury-Redstone 1 Mercury-Redstone 1A Mercury-Redstone 2 Mercury-Atlas 2 Little Joe 5A Mercury-BD Mercury-Atlas 3 Little Joe 5B Mercury-Atlas 4 Mercury-Scout 1 Mercury-Atlas 5 ..
A sample from these flights are given below
Mission: Little Joe 1
Vehicle: Little Joe (1)
Crew: Unmanned
Dates: September 15th 1959
Mission Purpose:
This was the Max Q abort and escape test. Flight was to determine how well the escape rocket would function under the most severe dynamic loading conditions anticipated during a Mercury-Atlas launching.
Orbit:
Distance: .5 statute miles
There was an evacuation of the area 35 minutes before, then the batteries for the programmer and destruct system in the test booster were being charged. However , half an hour before launchtime, an unexpected explosive flash occured. Afterwards it was evident that only the capsule-and-tower combination had been launched, on a trajectory similar to an off-the-pad abort. Near apogee, at about 2000 ft, the clamping ring that held tower to capsule released and the little pyro-rocket for jettisoning the tower fired. The accident report for LJ-1, issued September 18, 1959, blamed the premature firing on the Grand Central escape rocket on an electrical leak, or what missile engineers call transients or ghost voltages in a relay circuit. The fault was found in a coil designed to protect biological specimens from too rapid an abort.
Launch Pad: LC-14 Vehicle: Atlas (1) Crew: Unmanned
Dates: July 29th 1960
Payload: Spacecraft number 4, Launch Vehicle 50-D
Mission Purpose: To qualify spacecraft and Atlas combination including specfic tests which were:
Recover the capsule , determine the structral integrity of the Mercury capsule structure and afterbody shingles under the maximum heating conditions which could be encountered from an orbital launch . Also check the Mercury capsule afterbody heading rates for the all important re-entry. The flight dynamics of re-entry were tested as well as checks on the capsule recovery involving personnel. The flight was categorised as a failure, however safety, technology and methods were being developed on each mission.
Orbit:
Altitude: 8.1 statute miles
Orbits: 0
Mission: Mercury-Atlas 5
Launch Pad: LC-14
Vehicle: Atlas (5)
Crew: Enos the chimp
Payload: Spacecraft number 9, Launch Vehicle number 93-D
Mission Purpose: Primate test of Environmental Control System in Orbit. They had an on board visitor during the flight who was a chimpanzee called Enoz.He held up well to cabin pressure and flight time of nearly 90 minutes.
Orbit:
Altitude: 147.4 apogee by 99.5 perigee statute miles
Orbits: 2
Period: 88 minutes, 26 seconds
Duration: 0 Days, 3 hours, 20 minutes, 59 seconds
Distance: 50,892 statute miles
MANNED FLIGHTS 1961-1963
FREEDOM 7
Dates: 5th May 1961
Crew: Alan B. Shepard Jnr
Miles Travelled: 116.5
Orbits: Nil
Duration: 15 minutes 28 seconds.
Mission Purpose: Carrying the first American into space (Alan Shepherd) and a payload of the launch Vehicle MR7
The main scientific objective of project Mercury was to determine man’s capabilities in a space environment and in those environments to which he will be subject upon going into and returning from space. A very full mission which had its objectives including : The development of an automatic escape system, vehicle control during insertion, behavior of space systems, evaluation of pilots capabilities in space, in flight monitoring, retrofire and reentry maneuvers and landing and recovery. Above all though it had to prove man’s capabilities in a space environment and in those environments to which he will be subject upon going into and returning from space. The mission ironed out a few problems with maneuverbility, capsule and landing whilst catapulting Alan Shepherd into World-Wide stardom. Later he would walk on the Moon as part of Apollo 14.
(For Alan Shepherds Profile see Apollo 14 autograph colection)
LIBERTY BELL 7
Dates: July 21st 1961
Crew: Virgil I. Grissom
Miles Travelled: 302 miles
Duration: 15 minutes 37 seconds
Orbits: Nil
Mission Objective:
After earlier delays the mighty Mercury-Redstone 4 was the fourth mission in the Mercury-Redstone series of flight tests and the second U.S. manned suborbital spaceflight. The main objective was to corroborate the man-in-space concept. The main configuration differences between the MR-3 spacecraft was that it contained a large viewing window and an explosively actuated side hatch.The large viewing window was actually a result of a change requested by Mercury astronauts. By doing this it was obvious that this would allow the astronauts to have a greater viewing area than the original side port windows. The field of view was 30 degrees in the horizontal plane and 33 degrees in the vertical. The explosively actuated side hatch was used for the first time on the MR-4 flight.
Gus Grissom lay in the spacecraft 3 hours and 22 minutes prior to after extensive tests for weather conditions, launch procedures up to 21 days were spent at the launch pad itself. Everything had to be correct in order for the pad procedures to initiate the power to ignite such a vast sized rocket, any error could potentially be fatal, so delays were for safety and checks. During the boosted phase of flight, the flight-path angle was controlled by the launch-vehicle control system. Launch-vehicle cutoff occurred at T+2 minutes 23 seconds, at which time the escape tower was released by firing the escape and tower jettison rockets, an incredible picture of sheer power and thrust giving you the impression that ir would seem impossible to launch such a Rocket. In flight the periscope was extended; the automatic stabilization and control system provided 5 seconds of rate damping, followed by spacecraft turnaround. It then oriented the spacecraft to orbit attitude of -34 degrees.There was a Retro sequence was initiated by timer at T+4 minutes 46 seconds, which was 30 seconds prior to the spacecraft reaching its apogee. Gus Grissom took control of the spacecraft attitude at T+3 minutes 5 seconds and controlled the spacecraft by the manual proportional control system to T+5 minutes 43 seconds. He initiated firing of the retrorockets at T+5 minutes 10 seconds. From T+5 minutes 43 seconds, he controlled the spacecraft by the manual rate command system through reentry. The retrorocket package was jettisoned at T+6 minutes 7 seconds. The drogue parachute was deployed at T+9 minutes 41 seconds, and main parachute, at T+10 minutes 14 seconds.Although the flight was successful the spacecraft was lost during the post landing recovery period as a result of premature actuation of the explosively actuated side egress hatch. The capsule actually sank in 15,000 feet of water in the Atlantic ocean shortly after splashdown. The astronaut egressed from the spacecraft immediately after hatch actuation and was retrieved after being in the water for about 3 to 4 minutes. Mercury missions were making ground and now regularly Astronauts were being tested for future Lunar missions, Grissom would have been one of them.
(For Gus Grissoms biography see Astronaut Autograph collection)
FRIENDSHIP 7
Dates: February 20th 1962
Crew: John H Glenn
Miles Travelled: 75,679
Orbits: 3
Duration: 4 hours 55 mins and 23 seconds
Mission Purpose: Simply to place a man into Earth orbit and observe his reactions to the space environment and safely return him to Earth to a point where he could be readily found. During this Mercury flight it was planned during the first orbit was to maintain optimum spacecraft attitude for radar tracking and communication checks. After failed pre test checks this flight launched off with John Glenn in the capsule having a total weightless time of 4 hours 48 minutes.
During the flight only two major problems were encountered: (1) a yaw attitude control jet apparently clogged at the end of the first orbit, forcing the astronaut to abandon the automatic control system for the manual-electrical fly-by-wire system; and (2) a faulty switch in the heat shield circuit indicated that the clamp holding the shield had been prematurely released Nevertheless the mission was successful and John Glenn was the first man to orbit the earth, and complete a total of 3 orbits.
(for John Glenns biography see Astronaut autograph collection )
AURORA 7
Dates: May 24th 1962
Crew: Scott M Carpenter
Miles Travelled: 99.9
Duration: 4 hours 56 minutes asnd 5 seconds
Orbits: 3
Mission Purpose : To Corroborate man in orbit after an exceptionally good launch. During this mission the Spacecraft overshot intended target area by 250 nautical miles and Carpenter reported a severe list angle on the order of 60 degrees from vertical and post flight photographs of the spacecraft taken after egress indicated approximately a 45 degree list angle, plus on return considerable amount of sea water was found in the spacecraft which was believed to have entered through the small pressure bulkhead when Carpenter passed through the recovery compartment into the life raft. However the main highlights showed total weightless time of nearly 4 hours and 40 minutes.The craft performed well and all main objectives were achieved.Equipment included for the flight provided valuable scientific information; notably that regarding liquid behavior in a weightless state. An experiment also was carried out to provide atmospheric drag and color visibility data in space through deployment of an inflatable sphere was partially successful. What this flight did achieve was to demonstrate evidence for progressing into missions of extended durations which would have to be achieved in later Gemini and Apollo missions.
(for Scott Carpenters biography see Astronaut Autograph section)
SIGMA 7
Dates: October 3rd 1962
Crew: Walter M Schirra
Miles Travelled: 143,983
Duration: 9 hours 13 minutes and 11 seconds
Orbits:6
Mission Purpose: To achieve a Manned mission in orbit for 9 hours. Astronaut Wally Schirra made six orbits of the Earth in the Sigma 7 spacecraft on October 3 1962, in an almost completely successful nine-hour flight focused primarily on technical evaluation rather than on scientific experimentation. This was to be was the longes American orbital flight yet achieved, but was still well behind the several-day record set by the Soviet Vostok 3 earlier in the year, and helped confirm the Mercury spacecraft’s long-duration capabilities in preparation for the one-day Mercury Atlas 9 mission which fwas planned for launch in 1963, and to be the last of the Mercury missions.
The mission finally launched on the morning of October 3, having been delayed two weeks due to problems with the Atlas. There were no significant technical problems during the flight and the spacecraft’s control systems were thoroughly checked out, and it was left to orbit in both automated and entirely passive flight modes for prolonged periods whilst the pilot monitored it and carried out some minor scientific experiments. After six successful orbits, the capsule landed in the Pacific Ocean where Astronaut Wally Schirra was picked and reported an overall successful mission which would lead confidently on to the final mission of Mercury
FAITH 7
Dates: May 15th 1963
Crew:Gordon Cooper Jnr Miles Travelled: 546,167Duration: 1 day 10 hours 19 minutes and 49 seconds.Mission Purpose: To complete a minimum manned 1 day mission in orbit.Faith 7 the last Mercury project mission rocket was launched from Launch Complex and is described as follows: 14. At T+ 60-seconds, the Atlas started its pitch program. Shortly afterward, MA-9 passed through Max-Q. At T+ 2-minutes and 14-seconds Cooper felt BECO (Booster Engine Cutoff) and staging. The two Atlas booster engines had been left behind. The Launch Escape Tower was then jettisoned. At T+ 3-minutes the cabin pressure sealed at 5.5 psi (38 kPa). Cooper reported, “Faith 7 is all go.”At about T+ 5-minutes was SECO (Sustainer Engine Cutoff) and Faith 7 entered orbit at 17,547 mile/h (7,844 m/s). After the spacecraft separated and turned around to orbit attitude, Cooper watched his Atlas booster lag behind and tumble for about eight minutes. Over Zanzibar on the first orbit, he learned that the orbital parameters were good enough for at least 20 orbits. As the spacecraft passed over Guaymas, Mexico still on the first orbit, capsule communicator Gus Grissom told Cooper the ground computers said he was “go for seven orbits”.At the start of the third orbit, Cooper checked his list of 11 experiments that were on his schedule. His first task was to eject a six-inch (152 mm) diameter sphere, equipped with xenon strobe lights from the nose of the spacecraft. This experiment was designed to test his ability to spot and track a flashing beacon in orbit. At T+ 3-hours 25-minutes, Cooper flipped the switch and heard and felt the beacon detach from the spacecraft. He tried to see the flashing light in the approaching dusk and on the nightside pass, but failed to do so. On the fourth orbit, he did spot the beacon and saw it pulsing. Cooper reported to Scott Carpenter on Kauai, Hawaii, “I was with the little rascal all night.” He also spotted the beacon on his fifth and sixth orbits.Also on the sixth orbit, at about T+ 9-hours, Cooper set up cameras, adjusted the spacecraft attitude and set switches to deploy a tethered balloon from the nose of the spacecraft. It was a 30-inch (762 mm) PET film balloon painted fluorescent orange, inflated with nitrogen and attached to a 100 feet (30 m) nylon line from the antenna canister. A strain gauge in the antenna canister would measure differences in atmospheric drag between the 100 miles (160 km) perigee and the 160 miles (260 km) apogee. Cooper tried several times to eject the balloon, but it failed to eject.Cooper passed Schirra’s orbital record on the seventh orbit while he was engaged in radiation experiments. After T+ 10-hours, the Zanzibar tracking station informed Cooper the flight was a go for 17 orbits. Cooper was orbiting the earth every 88-minutes 45-seconds at an inclination of 32.55 degrees to the equator.His scheduled rest period was during orbits 9 through 13. He had a dinner of powdered roast beef mush and some water, took pictures of Asia and reported the spacecraft condition. Cooper was not sleepy and during orbit 9 took some of the best photos made during his flight. He took pictures of the Tibetan highlands and of the Himalayas.
Controversy arose during the flight when Cooper reported that he could see roads, rivers, small villages, and even individual houses if the lighting and background conditions were right. This was later confirmed by the two-man Gemini crews that later flew (of which Cooper was included). Cooper slept intermittently the next six hours, during orbits 10 through 13. He woke from time to time and took more pictures, taped status reports and kept adjusting his spacesuit temperature control which kept getting too hot or too cold.
On his fourteenth orbit, Cooper took an assessment of the spacecraft condition. The oxygen supply was sufficient. The peroxide fuel for attitude control was 69 percent in the automatic tank and 95 percent in the manual one. On the fifteenth orbit, he spent most of the time calibrating equipment and synchronizing clocks. When he entered night on the sixteenth orbit, Cooper pitched the spacecraft to slowly follow the plane of the ecliptic. Through the spacecraft window he viewed the zodiacal light and night airglow layer. He took pictures of these two “dim light” phenomena from Zanzibar, across the Earth’s nightside, to Canton Island. The pictures were later found to have been overexposed, but they still contained valuable data.
At the start of the 17th orbit while crossing Cape Canaveral, Florida, Cooper broadcast slow scan black and white television pictures to the ground. The picture showed a ghostly image of the astronaut. In the murky picture, a helmet and hoses could be seen, it was the first time an American astronaut had sent back television images from space.
On the 17th and 18th orbits, he took infrared weather photos and moonset Earth-limb pictures. He also resumed Geiger counter measurements of radiation. He sang during orbits 18 and 19, and marveled at the greenery of Earth. It was nearing T+ 30-hours since liftoff.
On the nineteenth orbit, the first sign of trouble appeared when the spacecraft 0.05 g (0.5 m/s²) light came on. However, this turned out to be a faulty indicator, and the spacecraft was not reentering. On the 20th orbit, Cooper lost all attitude readings. The 21st orbit saw a short-circuit occur in the bus bar serving the 250 volt main inverter. This left the automatic stabilization and control system without electric power.
On the 21st orbit, John Glenn onboard the Coastal Sentry Quebec near Kyūshū, Japan, helped Cooper prepare a revised checklist for retrofire. Due to the system malfunctions, many of the steps would have to be done manually. Only Hawaii and Zanzibar were in radio range on this last orbit, but communications were good. Cooper noted that the carbon dioxide level was rising in the cabin and in his spacesuit. He told Carpenter as he passed over Zanzibar, “Things are beginning to stack up a little.” Throughout the problems, Cooper remained cool, calm and collected. At the end of the 21st orbit, Cooper again contacted Glenn on the Coastal Sentry Quebec. He reported the spacecraft was in retro attitude and holding manually. The checklist was complete. Glenn gave a ten-second countdown to retrofire. Cooper kept the spacecraft aligned at a 34 degree pitchdown angle and manually fired the retrorockets on “Mark!”.
Fifteen minutes later the Faith 7 landed just four miles (6 km) from the prime recovery ship, the carrier USS Kearsarge. This was the most accurate landing to date, despite the lack of automatic controls. The landing spot was just 130 km south east of Midway Island, in the Pacific Ocean. Splashdown was at T+ 34-hours 19-minutes 49-seconds after liftoff. The spacecraft tipped over in the water momentarily, then righted itself. Helicopters dropped rescue swimmers and relayed Cooper’s request of an Air Force officer, for permission to be hoisted aboard the Navy’s carrier. Permission was granted, 40 minutes later the explosive hatch blew open on the deck of the Kearsarge. Cooper stepped out of the Faith 7 to a warm greeting. (Source of this full account is by Wikepedia)
Cooper thus concluded an amazing series of unmanned and manned flights (26) since 1959 drawing it to a successful conclusion which would lead the US space program confidently into project Gemini.
(For Gordon Coopers biography see Astronaut Autograph collection)
GEMINI PROGRAM THE QUEST FOR THE MOON CONTINUES
After the general success of the Mercury program throughout the early 1960’s publich awareness and confidence had grown sufficient for NASA’s goal of putting a man on the moon by the end of the 60’s decade. American men had out the lives on the line for the ulitimate quest of being selected for the Lunar mission. It would still be six years before Armstrong would step down from the Lunar Module, and that would mean a lot more intense testing, Astronaut training , technology development, and of course a budget that would probably laughed out of the Senate in todays terms.
All to often we read about the heroic missions of the Apollo moon landing programs ,whilst in reality we must pay homage to all of those people involved in the pre Apollo programs that paved the way. Without a vast budget, a dedicated ground crew, test pilots, ground breaking scientists, technicians , administration staff and public support would we have ever seen Kennedys’ prophesy come to pass.
Gemini Goals
A specific goal was in place for the following:
To subject two men and their equipment to long duration flights for future deeper space missions ie (The Moon)
To be able to rendevous and dock with other crafts in orbit, and to maneuver those vehicles in space using the propulsion system of the target vehicle for such maneuevers.
To perfect methods of re-entry and landing the spacecraft at a pre-selected land-landing point.
To gain additional information concerning weightlessness on crew members, and to record the physiological reactions of crew members.
GEMINI MISSIONS
Gemini 3
Dates: 23rd March 1965
Crew: John Young and Virgil ‘Gus’ Grissom
Mission Purpose: Gemini 3 became the first crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series. It was piloted both by experienced astronauts Virgil “Gus” Grissom and John Young. Their main objective was to demonstrate the crewed qualifications of the Gemini spacecraft including evaluation of the two-man Gemini design, the worldwide tracking network, the orbit attitude and maneuver system (OAMS), the control of reentry flight path and landing point, spacecraft systems, and spacecraft recovery.
Further to those very crucial tests they had objectives that included evaluation of flight crew equipment and effects of low level launch vehicle oscillations (POGO) on the crew, performance of three experimants, and to obtain photographic coverage from orbit.
After successful tests the Astronauts splashed down in the Atlantic in the vicinity of Grand Turk Island, at 22.43 that same day. Due to less-than-expected spacecraft lift during reentry, the spacecraft landed 111 km short of the target point.It was reported that both astronauts became seasick, removed their suits, and left the spacecraft at about 3:00 p.m. EST. They were picked up by helicopter and were found to be in good condition. The Gemini capsule was recovered at 5:03 p.m. EST. Two of the three experiments were performed successfully, the third, sea urchin egg growth in zero-G, was not due to a mechanical failure. The photography objective was only partially achieved because of an improper lens on the 16 mm camera. All other mission objectives were achieved.
Gemini 4
Dates: 3rd June - June 7th 1965
Crew: James Mc divitt and Edward White
Mission Purpose: Gemini 4 was the second crewed mission of the Gemini series and was flown by James McDivitt and Edward White on a 4-day, 62-orbit mission. The mission had a major highlight which was the first American spacewalk, carried out by Ed White.
Mission objective as to test the performance of the astronauts and capsule and to evaluate work procedures, schedules, and flight planning for an extended length of time in space. Secondary objectives carried out were extraavehicular activity in space, conduct stationkeeping and rendezvous maneuvers, evaluate spacecraft systems, demonstrate the capability to make significant in-plane and out-of-plane maneuvers and use of the maneuvering system as a backup reentry system, and conduct 11 experiments.
During there flight time the orbit was raised to 166 x 290 km during the first revolution to attempt a rendezvous with the second stage. This station-keeping exercise was cancelled early in the second revolution after a large depletion of 42% of the fuel, it was determined that use of more fuel would jeopardize other mission objectives. It was after this that Ed White got into special gear and pressurized his suit at 3.7 psi. McDivitt depressurized the cabin, bringing the pressure to zero at 2:33:35 p.m. EST, and the hatch was opened at 2:34. Ed White stood up two minutes later and exited the spacecraft using a hand-held gas gun at 2:46 to become the first American to walk in space. White was attached to the spacecraft by only an 8 meter tether. The gas gun fuel supply was depleted in 3 minutes, after which White pulled on the tether and twisted his body to maneuver around the spacecraft. The extravehicular activity (EVA) lasted 23 minutes, after which White pulled himself back into the spacecraft. An incredible fete for its time, and not for the faint hearted.
There was difficulty sealing the hatch, but working together the astronauts finally closed it, at 3:10 p.m. EST. Cabin repressurization began at 3:12:50. Drifting flight was maintained for the next 30 hours to conserve propellant. At 11:56:00 a.m. EST on June 7. Gemini 4 splashed down . The crew were recovered by helicopter and flown to the aircraft carrier U.S.S. Wasp at 1:09 p.m. and the capsule was recovered at 2:28 p.m.
Gemini 5
Dates: August 21st- August 29th 1965
Crew: Gordon Cooper and Charles ‘Pete’ Conrad
Mission Purpose: Gemini 5, carrying astronauts Gordon Cooper and Charles “Pete” Conrad was the third crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series. The flight was designed to last eight days and test rendezvous procedures. Again the major objectives of this mission were to demonstrate a long-duration crewed flight, evaluate the effects of long periods of weightlessness on the crew, and test rendezvous capabilities and maneuvers using a rendezvous evaluation pod.
Further objectives included demonstration of all phases of guidance and control systems which would support the rendezvous and controlled reentry guidance as well as to evaluate the fuel cell power system and rendezvous radar. Lastly they were to test the capability of either pilot to maneuver the spacecraft in orbit to close proximity with another object, and to conduct 17 given experiments during their mission.
There were four rendevous tests to perform ,however on day 5 thruster number 7 became inoperative with the naneuvering system also becoming hard to handle. Later thruster 8 failed and there was limited experimental and operational activities due to the erratic behaviour of the equipment. Splashdown was successful , however it overshot by 169 kilometeres.
Gemini 7 (manned) Gemini 6A (manned)
Dates: December 4th -December 18th
Crew:James Lovell and Frank Borman (Gemini 7)Tom Stafford and Wally Schirra (Gemini 6A)
Mission Purpose: Gemini 6A and 7 was the fourth crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, and was launched before Gemini 6A. Gemini 7 carried astronauts Frank Borman and Jim Lovell on their 14 day mission. Its mission priorities were as follows
(1) to demonstrate a 2-week flight,
(2) to perform stationkeeping with the Gemini launch vehicle stage 2,
(3) to evaluate the ’shirt sleeve’ environment and the lightweight pressure suit,
(4) to act as a rendezvous target for Gemini 6A
(5) to demonstrate controlled reentry close to the target landing point.
The crew members had three scientific, four technological, four spacecraft, and eight medical experiments to perform. A very full mission with the added task of working with a post flight launch of Gemini 6A .Immediately after separation Gemini 7 began station-keeping operations with the Titan II second stage at distances from 6 meters to 80 km over a period of 17 minutes. On the third revolution the perigee was raised to 230 km to ensure an orbital lifetime of 15 days which was required to successfully complete their mission.
On 6 December, 45 hours into the mission, Lovell removed his spacesuit to evaluate the shirtsleeve environment. The first five days were spent conducting experiments and spacecraft tests. On 9 December the orbit was circularized to 299.7 x 303.7 to prepare for the rendezvous exercise with Gemini 6A. On 10 December after neaely 5 days into the mission Lovell put his suit back on and Borman removed his. Some 20 hours later Lovell removed his suit as well and both astronauts operated without suits for the remainder of the mission except for the rendezvous with Gemini 6A and reentry.
Experiments were conducted over the next few days, then on 15 December Gemini 6A was launched. Gemini 6A caught up to Gemini 7 and rendezvous was technically achieved and station-keeping begun on 15 December at 2:33 p.m. EST with the two Gemini spacecraft in zero relative motion at a distance of 110 meters. These Station-keeping maneuvers involving the spacecraft circling each other and approaching and backing off continued for 5 hours 19 minutes over three and a half orbits. During the maneuvers, all four astronauts on both spacecraft took turns in the formation flying activities and photographs were taken from both spacecraft. This marked the first time two spacecraft were maneuvered with respect to each other by their crews. At the end of stationkeeping Gemini 6A fired thrusters to move to a position roughly 50 km away from Gemini 7 for drifting flight during the sleep period. Gemini 6A returned to Earth on December 16. Gemini 7 remained in Earth orbit and reentered two days later.
Splashdown followed at 9:05:04 in the western Atlantic southwest of Bermuda and the spacecraft successfully recovered. Total mission elapsed time was 330:35:01, making this the longest anyone had ever stayed in space.NASA announced that the astronauts were pronounced in “better than expected” physical condition after their two week flight.
GEMINI 8
Dates: 16 March 1966
Crew: Neil Armstrong and David Scott
Mission Purpose: Gemini 8 was the sixth crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, carrying astronauts Neil Armstrong and David Scott. The main mission objectives were to perform rendezvous and four docking tests with the Agena target vehicle and to execute an ExtraVehicular Activity (EVA) experiment. Other objectives included parking the Agena in a 410 km circular orbit, performing a rerendezvous with the Agena, conduct systems evaluation, evaluating the auxiliary tape memory unit, and demonstration of controlled reentry. Ten technological, medical, and scientific experiments were carried on board.
Gemini 8 was launched on the 16 March 1966 and over the next six hours the spacecraft performed 9 maneuvers in order that it could rendezvous with the Gemini Agena Target Vehicle (GATV), which had been launched previously (at 9:00 a.m. EST). The rendezvous phase ended at 4:39 p.m. EST, with the spacecraft only 45 meters apart with zero relative motion. The usual station-keeping and other maneuvers were performed for about half an hour, and then Gemini 8 moved in and docked with the GATV on the 5th revolution at 5:14 p.m. This was the first docking ever to take place in space, and something Armstrong was to prove successful on with his control techniques for the future moon landing.
About 27 minutes after docking at 5:41 p.m. the combined vehicle began to go into a violent yaw and tumble. Armstrong disengaged the Gemini capsule from the GATV causing it to roll, pitch, and yaw even more rapidly than when it was connected to the GATV, approaching and possibly exceeding a rate of one revolution per second. Armstrong and Scott managed to deactivate the OAMS and in a final attempt to counteract the violent tumbling all 16 reentry control system (RCS) thrusters were utilized to damp out the roll.
This manuever was successful in stabilizing the spacecraft at 6:06:30 p.m. but ended up using a lot of the fuel (75%). It was then discovered that one of the 25-pound Orbit Atitude and Maneuver System (OAMS) roll thrusters (roll thruster no. 
on Gemini 8 had been firing continuously, causing the tumbling. Apparently it had short-circuited while being used to maneuver the Gemini-GATV combination and had stuck open. Because of the premature use of the reentry control system an immediate landing was required by Gemini safety rules, so unfortunately the planned EVA and other activities were cancelled. Retrofire took place on the 7th revolution at 9:45:49 p.m. on 16 March, just over 10 hours after launch, and the spacecraft splashed down in the western Pacific Ocean about 800 km west of Okinawa at 25.22 N, 136.00 E, 2 km from the target. Total mission elapsed time was only 10:41:26.
Though the termination of the mission precluded achievement of many mission objectives, the rendezvous and docking was accomplished, as was the evaluation of the auxiliary tape memory unit and demonstration of controlled reentry. Of the six scientific experiments only the Agena micrometeorite collection was successful.
GEMINI 9A
Dates: June 3rd - June 6th 1966
Crew: Tom Stafford and Eugene Cernan
Mission Purpose: Gemini 9A was the seventh crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series and astronauts Tom Stafford and Gene Cernan were on board with these objectives:
(1) rendezvous techniques and docking with a target vehicle to simulate manuevers to be carried out on future Apollo missions,
(2) an ExtraVehicular Activity (EVA) spacewalk to test the Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU), and
(3) precision landing capability. Scientific objectives included obtaining zodiacal light and airglow horizon photographs. Two micrometeorite studies were to be carried out, and there were also one medical and two technological experiments.
After a postponement was postponed Gemini 9A was launched on 3 June at 8:39:33 a.m. EST (13:39:33.335 UT) and inserted into a 158.8 x 266.9 km orbit. After three orbital maneuvers they were within 8 meters of the ATDA. As it was confirmed that the launch shroud on the ATDA had failed to action and was blocking the docking port the flight plan was then revised to include two equiperiod passive rerendezvous maneuvers in place of the docking.
On 5 June at 10:02 a.m. EST the Gemini capsule was depressurized and the hatch above Cernan opened.Astronaut Cernan was externally out of the spacecraft at 10:19 being attached by an 8 meter long tether which was connected to Gemini’s oxygen supply.Cernan retrieved the micrometeorite impact detector attached to the side of the capsule and then moved about the spacecraft. He had great difficulty manuevering and maintaining orientation on the long tether. Whilst outside Cernan took photographs of Gemini from the full length of the tether and finally moved to the back of the capsule where the Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU) was mounted. He was scheduled to put on the AMU, disconnect from the Gemini oxygen supply (although he would still be attached to the spacecraft with a longer, thinner tether) and move to 45 meters from the capsule. The system of getting into the AMU took nearly five times more work than anticipated which overwhelmed Cernan’s environmental control system and causing his faceplate to fog up resulting in poor visability..
It was also discovered that the AMU radio transmissions were distorted and because of this Stafford insisted Cernan was to return to the spacecraft. Cernan re-entered the spacecraft at 12:05 p.m. and the hatch was closed at 12:10. Cernan was the third person to walk in space and his total time of 2 hours, 8 minutes was the longest spacewalk yet.
Retrofire occurred at the end of the 45th revolution on 6 June at 8:26:17 a.m and splashdown was at 9:00:23 in the western Atlantic at under 10 kilometers from target.
(For Eugene Cernan and Tom Staffords biographies see Astronaut Autograph Collection)
_.jpg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gemini_10_prime_crew_(Young_and_Collins)_.jpg&usg=__Z7HkCyygTAi1hX_IRSNId84iIFA=&h=800&w=678&sz=144&hl=en&start=1&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=8NjlyOBXZ3OTNM:&tbnh=143&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3DGEMINI%2B10%2Bcrew%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26rlz%3D1R2ADBR_en%26ndsp%3D18%26tbs%3Disch:1)
GEMINI 10
Dates: July 18th -July 21st 1966
Crew:John Young and Michael Collins
Mission Purpose: Gemini 10 was the eighth crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, with astronauts John Young and Michael Collins. Its main objective purpose was to conduct rendezvous and docking tests with the Agena target vehicle. The mission also included a rendezvous with the Gemini 8 Agena target, two extravehicular activity (EVA) excursions, and the performance of 15 scientific, technological, and medical experiments. These scientific experiments were related to the following (1) zodiacal light, synoptic terrain, and synoptic weather photography, (2) micrometeorite collections, (3) UV astronomical camera, (4) ion wake measurements, and (5) meteoroid erosion.
Gemini 10 was launched on 18 July from Complex 19 at 5:20:26 p.m. EST . At orbit insertion Gemini 10 was about 1600 km behind the Gemini Agena Target Vehicle 10 (GATV-10) which had been launched into a near circular orbit about 100 minutes earlier. Rendezvous with GATV-10 was achieved on the 4th revolution at 10:43 p.m. and at 11:13:03 p.m. docking was achieved. Due to an out-of-plane error in the initial orbit required the Gemini to use 60% of its fuel for the rendezvous, this was over twice the planned amount. To conserve fuel, Gemini 10 remained docked to GATV-10 for the next 39 hours and used the GATV propulsion system for maneuvers. The planned docking practice runs were cancelled.
A 14-second burn of the GATV-10 primary propulsion system was used to raise the dual spacecraft apogee to 764 km. While the spacecraft were docked, a bending mode test was conducted to study spacecraft dynamics and other experiments were performed. Another burn of GATV-10 at 3:58 p.m. on 19 July brought the spacecraft into the same orbit as the GATV-8, which had been launched on 16 March for the Gemini 8 mission. At 4:44 p.m. the Gemini cabin pressure was reduced to zero and the hatch was opened.
Collins stood up in his seat 3 minutes later and began photographing stellar UV radiation. Partway into the standup EVA Young and Collins began to experience severe eye irritation from an unidentified source and Young ordered termination of the EVA. Collins sat down and the hatch was closed at 5:33 p.m., and a high oxygen flow rate was used to purge the environmental control system.
Gemini 10 separated from GATV-10 at 2:00 p.m. EST on 20 July. A series of manuevers using its own thrusters brought Gemini 10 within about 15 meters of GATV-8. At 6:01 p.m. (48:41 ground elapsed time) the cabin was evacuated and the hatch opened for Collins to begin his second EVA. Collins left the spacecraft 6 minutes later attached to an umbilical cord and travelled to the GATV-8. Despite difficulties due to lack of handholds on the target vehicle Collins removed the fairing and retrieved the micrometeoroid detection equipment. During the EVA he lost his camera. He also retrieved the micrometeorite experiment mounted on the Gemini 10 spacecraft, but this apparently floated out of the hatch and was lost when Collins reentered the capsule.
The EVA was limited to 25 minutes of outside activity this was due to lack of fuel. Collins reentered the capsule at 6:32 p.m. and the hatch was closed at 6:40. The hatch was reopened again at 7:53 p.m. to jettison 12 items before reentry. After about three hours of stationkeeping Gemini 10 moved away from GATV-8. At 8:59 p.m. the crew performed an anomaly adjust maneuver to minimize reentry dispersions resulting from the retrofire maneuver.
Retrorocket ignition took place during the 43rd revolution on 21 July at 3:30:50 p.m. EST and splashdown occurred at 4:07:05 p.m. in the western Atlantic at 26.74 N, 71.95 W, 875 km east of Cape Kennedy and 6.3 km from the target point. The crew was picked up by helicopter.
GEMINI 11
Dates: September 6th -September 15th 1966
Crew: Charles ‘Pete’ Conrad and Richard Gordon
Mission Purpose: Gemini 11 was the ninth crewed Earth-orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, and carried astronauts Charles “Pete” Conrad and Richard Gordon, both who went on to serve with Apollo moon missions.The 3-day mission was designed to achieve a first orbit rendezvous and docking with the Agena target vehicle, to accomplish two ExtraVehicular Activity (EVA) tests, to perform docking practice, docked configuration maneuvers, tethered operations, parking of the Agena target vehicle and demonstrate an automatic reentry. This was almost bringing to an end the era of Gemini to make way for Apollo 1 in 1967.
Further to the main priorities there were also eight scientific and four technological experiments on board. The scientific experiments were (1) synergistic effect of zero-g and radiation on white blood cells, (2) synoptic terrain photography, (3) synoptic weather photography, (4) nuclear emulsions, (5) airglow horizon photography, (6) UV astronomical photography, (7) Gemini ion wake measurement, and (8) dim sky photography.
Gemini 11 was launched on 12 September 1966 at 9:42:26 a.m. EST and inserted into a 160.5 x 279.1 km Earth orbit at 9:48:28. There were spacecraft maneuvers made to rendezvous with the Gemini Agena Target Vehicle 11 (GATV-11) at 11:07 a.m. The GATV-11 had been previously launched 90 minutes before Gemini 11. Docking was completed at 11:16 a.m. on the first orbit, consuming less fuel than expected. Both Conrad and Gordon then conducted two docking exercises with the GATV, and then a maneuver at 2:14:14 p.m. brought the docked spacecraft into a 287 x 304 km orbit. The sleep period was spent in docked configuration.
On 13 September at 9:44 a.m the Gemini cabin atmosphere was evacuated and the hatch opened to begin Richard Gordon’s scheduled 107 minute EVA. He was attached by an umbilical cord. Gordon set up a movie camera and retrieved the micrometeorite experiment. The next task, detaching one end of the 30 meter tether from the Agena and attaching it to the Gemini spacecraft docking bar, proved to be exhausting and overstressed Gordon’s life support system. After attaching the tether, Gordon stopped to rest astride the GATV, but due to the heavy perspiration inside the suit blurred his vision and even eventually blinded his right eye.
Conrad ordered him to cancel operations and return to the cabin. Gordon returned to the cabin at about 10:12 a.m. and closed the hatch at 10:17 a.m. so the cabin could be repressurized. At 11:19 a.m. the hatch was opened again to jettison some excess equipment. There followed a sleep period, the Agena primary propulsion system was fired for 25 seconds at 2:12:41 a.m. EST on 14 September, raising the docked spacecraft apogee to 1374.1 km. (this was a record altitude for an astronaut mission that would stand until Apollo 8 went to the Moon.)
After two orbits the Agena was fired again for 22.5. Gordon opened his hatch to begin a 2 hour 8 minute standup EVA during which he conducted photographic experiments. The hatch was closed at 9:57 a.m. and shortly afterwards the spacecraft were undocked and Gemini 11 moved to the end of the 30 meter tether attaching the two spacecraft. At 11:55 a.m. Conrad started a slow rotation of the Gemini capsule about the GATV which kept the tether taut and the spacecraft a constant distance apart at the ends of the tether. Oscillations occurred initially, but damped out after about 20 minutes. The rotation rate was then increased, oscillations again occurred but damped out and the combination stabilised. Gemini 11, demonstated for the the first time artificial gravity in space. After about three hours the tether was released and the spacecraft moved apart. A fuel cell stack failed at 4:13 p.m., but the remaining stacks took over the load satisfactorally. At 4:22 a.m. on 15 September a final rerendezvous maneuver without use of the rendezvous radar, which had malfunctioned, was accomplished.
Retrofire occurred at the end of the 44th revolution at 8:24:03 a.m. EST on 15 September and lead to eventual splashdown in the western Atlantic at 24.25 N, 70.00 W, 4.9 km from the target point, occurred at 8:59:35 a.m. EST. a.m. Total mission time was 71:17:08. A successful mission where all primary objectives were accomplished, and the last rerendezvous added to the mission plan due to the favorable fuel supply.
(For Pete Conrad and Richard Gordons’ biographies please see Astronaut Autograph Collection)
_.jpg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gemini_12_prime_crew_(Aldrin_and_Lovell)_.jpg&usg=__cq67pZghTHummsvVYg2RtYS6KYc=&h=476&w=370&sz=82&hl=en&start=6&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=uHkjONsGll_XGM:&tbnh=129&tbnw=100&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dgemini%2B12%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rlz%3D1R2ADBR_en%26tbs%3Disch:1)
Gemini 12
Dates: November 11-November 15th 1966
Crew:James Lovell and Buzz Aldrin
Mission Purpose.. This was to be the last Gemini flight and the 10th mission achieved. The crew chosen were astronauts Jim Lovell and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, and their task was to perform rendezvous and docking with the Agena target vehicle, to conduct three ExtraVehicular Activity (EVA) operations, to conduct a tethered stationkeeping exercise, to perform docked maneuvers using the Agena propulsion system to change orbit, and demonstrate an automatic reentry. There were a number of scientific, medical, and technological experiments on board totalling 14.
Gemini 12 was launched from Complex 19 on 11 November 1966 at 3:46:33 p.m. EST and inserted into a 160.8 x 270.6 km Earth orbit at 3:52:40. At 7:32 p.m. rendezvous was achieved with the Gemini Agena Target Vehicle (GATV), which had been launched 90 minutes before Gemini 12. Docking with the GATV was accomplished 28 minutes later, at 4:14 ground elapsed time (GET) on the third orbit, relying heavily on visual sightings due to problems with the onboard radar.
During insertion of the GATV into orbit they noticed a problem in the primary propulsion system, so the plan to use the GATV to lift the docked spacecraft into a higher orbit was abandoned. Instead two phasing maneuvers using the GATV secondary propulsion system were accomplished, and this to allowed the spacecraft to rendezvous with the November 12 total eclipse over South America at about 9:20 a.m. EST with the crew taking pictures through the spacecraft windows.
The first standup EVA took place with the hatch opening at 11:15 a.m. EST (19:29 GET) on 12 November with Buzz Aldrin standing on his seat with his upper body out of the hatch. The EVA lasted 2 hours 29 minutes during which Aldrin mounted a camera to the side of the spacecraft collecting a micrometeorite experiment, with the hatch closing at 1:44 p.m. On 13 November at 7:16 a.m. the crew reported little or no thrust was available from two of the maneuvering thrusters. At 10:34 a.m. (42:48 GET) the hatch was opened for the second EVA. Aldrin was outside the spacecraft at 10:38, attached to a 9 meter umbilical cord. Firstly he worked in the hatch and nose area, and then moved along a handrail he had installed to the adapter section where he used foot restraints and tethers to position himself in front of a work panel mounted on the rear of the adaptor where he performed 17 relatively simple manual tasks. He then moved to the target vehicle adapter area and carried out another series of tasks, including use of a torque wrench while tethered. During this EVA he attached a 30 meter long tether stowed in the GATV adapter to the Gemini adapter bar. A dozen two-minute rest periods were scheduled during the EVA to prevent Aldrin from becoming overtaxed as we have seen happen to previous spacewalkers. Aldrin reentered the capsule at 12:33 p.m. and closed the hatch at 12:40 p.m. It was reported that all tasks were accomplished and total EVA time was 2 hours 6 minutes.
At 3:09 p.m. Gemini 12 undocked from the GATV, moved to the end of the tether connecting the two vehicles, and began the tether experiment by moving in a cicular orbit about the GATV. The tether tended to remain slack, but the crew believed the two craft slowly attained gravity-gradient stabilization. The tether was released at 7:37 p.m. On 14 November the hatch was opened at 9:52 a.m. (66:06 GET) and Aldrin began the second standup EVA .This EVA included photography, additional experiments and the jettison of unused equipment. The EVA ended after 55 minutes when the hatch was closed at 10:47 a.m. Minor fuel cell and thruster problems were reported, but did not affect the remainder of the mission.
The automatically controlled reentry sequence began with retrofire at the end of revolution 59 on 15 November at 1:46:31 p.m. EST with Splashdown occurring at 2:21:04 p.m. in the western Atlantic. The crew was picked up by helicopter and brought aboard the U.S.S. Wasp at 2:49 p.m., the spacecraft was picked up at 3:28 p.m. Total mission elapsed time was 94:34:31. During this mission scientific experiments that were successfully achieved were (1) frog egg growth under zero-g, (2) synoptic terrain photography, (3) synoptic weather photography, (4) nuclear emulsions, (5) airglow horizon photography, (6) UV astronomical photography, and (7) dim sky photography. Two micrometeorite collection experiments, as well as three space phenomena photography experiments, were not fully completed.
(For Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrins’ biographies please see Astronaut Autograph Collection)
And so we see the end of a long period oftest flights for the Gemini missions with te majority of objectives and experiments successful. Certain Astronauts were later selected for the Moon missions, these Astronauts were: Pete Conrad, James Lovell, Richard Gordon, Michael Collins, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Cene Cernan, John Young and Dave Scott. Out of these: Conrad, Armstrong, Aldrin, Cernan, Young and Scott would walk on the surface of the moon between 1969 and 1972.
THE RUSSIAN SPACE PROGRAM
America’s main competition in particular during the 1960’s space race to the Lunar surface were the Soviets. They were already well advanced in projecting Satellites into outer Orbit after success with Sputnik 1. There history gives us a fascinating insight into a Nation determined to win the Cold war that was going on between themselves and the USA.For them it would incorporated a roller coaster ride of both success and tragedy,much of which would probably still not be known to a space enthused public. We must however salute there remarkable achievement of placing the first human (Yuri Gagarin
into space and successfully bringing him back again
Soviet Space journey
It is know surprise that the Soviet military have had a great deal of authority in their progra. What was once a world-wide superpower engulfed in secrecy and often in proproganda competition with the USA, the Soviet Union set an early ‘Pace for Space’. Their manned or scientific space missions could be justified if seen to be in co-operation with the mighty military presence. They say that it was actually as little as 20% Soviet launches which were considered for ‘national prestige’ purposes , namely (civilian manned flights, scientific and planetary).
Working to both five and ten year projects we see that their first such plan was approved in 1961, with setbacks along the way due to USA Star Wars program of events around 1985. Russian space historians variously refer to three or four generations of space systems, resulting in some confusion.
Way back between 1950 to 1960 were the very first serious studies for spacecraft and launch vehicles were actually taking place in 1956. There were three projects that were agreed for development: the ISZ first earth satellite (we know that this was launched as Sputnik-3); the Zenit photo-reconnaissance satellite; and the Vostok first manned spacecraft. Vostok is probably their most historically reknown spacecraft that was developed.
After much hype and propoganda surrounding the first Sputnik in 1957 there then took place a real plan to develop both rockets and satellites necessary for the first probes of the Moon, and much deeper into space with Mars, and Venus. These would be developed long term as space launchers and spacecraft. Their known ambitious plans for manned expeditions no doubt sparked of the USA program into getting a man on the Moon first. Had it not been for some significant set backs they may have made it. The beginning of the 1960’s saw an amazing total of thirty space systems that actually, which with intervention by the Military this was reduced greatly.
There were Military research programs from 1962 to 1964 code-named Shchit (space systems), Osnova (space equipment), and Ediniy KIK (ground systems) which mapped out the first generation of Soviet operational space systems which were deployed from1966-1975.
Soviet military objective was to integrate space forces into overall military planning, taking into account the most cost-effective use of resources.In 1970 were projects Prognoz and Sirius Phase I. and there was the development of the first nine systems of the second generation, these were completed in 1974-1975 with space flight trials carried out in the second half of the 1970’s. This lead on to the second group of these second generation systems being developed in the second half of the 1970’s being actually deployed in the first half of the 1980’s. Soviet space history tells us that from 1971-1976 a total of 14 new space systems entered military service, and 16 were in operation. This was indeed a huge commitment, and that commitment is shown clearly today with what was the MIR space station and now working together on the International Space Station (ISS) as a space community.
Moving forward with the third generation projects (1985 to 1990) these space systems constituted an integrated Multi-Element Space System, including interestingly the planned Multi-echelon Anti Ballistic Missile System. We see already that military rather than science was shaping the program at that time. However in 1985 these plans were cut back and rationalised to a condensed programme which would meet the American Strategic Defence Initiative challenge during what was by then their 12th Five Year Plan (1986-1990).
.jpg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_D_with_Mercury-Atlas_5_(Nov._29_1961).jpg&usg=__-zLb8Htd70lcfGYfqZPqPUl5cIs=&h=440&w=352&sz=17&hl=en&start=1&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=esa3eL13agwbxM:&tbnh=127&tbnw=102&prev=/images%3Fq%3DMercury-Atlas%2B5%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG%26rlz%3D1R2ADBR_en%26tbs%3Disch:1){kind=link}
.jpg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gemini_3_-_Prime_Crew_(Young_and_Grissom).jpg&usg=__e1vfH94evfid-M6pDvDxsK9CeQs=&h=2901&w=1959&sz=2185&hl=en&start=3&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=PFtaY-XnW-PZLM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=101&prev=/images%3Fq%3DGEMINI%2B3%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26rlz%3D1R2ADBR_en%26ndsp%3D18%26tbs%3Disch:1){kind=link}
-7-Admin%26profileid%3D31&imgrefurl=http://www.nasaimages.org/luna/servlet/detail/nasaNAS~7~7~32309~136176:Gemini-5-prime-crew&usg=__Mj5J_4C0d0BW0J9V7NLwNTleq74=&h=480&w=640&sz=73&hl=en&start=2&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=54OCRF-CNOQPsM:&tbnh=103&tbnw=137&prev=/images%3Fq%3DGEMINI%2B5%2Bcrew%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26rlz%3D1R2ADBR_en%26ndsp%3D18%26tbs%3Disch:1){kind=link}
.jpg&imgrefurl=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gemini_7_Crew_(Lovell_und_Borman).jpg&usg=__Hry96AR7B69zlWmQXvbUe1k5Y4k=&h=453&w=564&sz=78&hl=en&start=2&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=8xJ0L6piYsVOmM:&tbnh=108&tbnw=134&prev=/images%3Fq%3DGEMINI%2B7%2Bcrew%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rlz%3D1R2ADBR_en%26tbs%3Disch:1){kind=link}
.jpg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gemini_11_prime_crew_(Gordon_and_Conrad).jpg&usg=__uMzYCWWEDGilp4p0g62quekTqY0=&h=512&w=640&sz=77&hl=en&start=25&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=bRylOZHIPYhldM:&tbnh=110&tbnw=137&prev=/images%3Fq%3DGEMINI%2B11%2Bcrew%26start%3D18%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26rlz%3D1R2ADBR_en%26ndsp%3D18%26tbs%3Disch:1){kind=link}
Of course in 1991 with the break-up of the Soviet Union caused the launch site for the largest launch vehicles and the main planned launch vehicle producer being outside of Russia. That gives a very brief look at the Russian program, but it is right to provide a separate account of the MIR space station which is given below:
MIR
We have been familiar with the MIR space station for some years now and seen its develop grow into a very useable multi function works station. The word Mir actually means “Peace” and “community” in Russian. with this space station contributing to world peace by way hosting international scientists and American astronauts. Its purpose is to continually and successfully support a community of humans in orbit and symbolized the commonwealth of the Russian people.
Mir was a huge project which resulted in the construction of it taking place in orbit achieved by connecting different modules,. These modules were launched separately during a period from 1986 to 1996. It was good timing that the United States Shuttle program was by the well developed and able to combine its capabilities with MIR.. The orbiting Mir provided a large and livable scientific laboratory in space. The space shuttle missions would thus visit providing transportation and supplies creating history’s largest spacecraft, with a combined mass of 250 tons.
The view from a shuttle widow woud have been superb when in sight of the 100-ton Mir as it was as vast in size eclipsing by far the length of an average football pitch. Inside was apparently pretty cramped as it had to hold everyday requirements for long stays. as well as scientific instruments and complicated equipment for research. Designed to house a comfotable 3 crew members it sometimes had to accomodate up to six for periods of a month up until It commonly housed three crewmembers, but it sometimes supported as many as six, for up to a ceasing in 1999. Its final journey was in 2001 after 15 years it re-entered the Earths atmosphere destined for the Pacific ocean.